{"id":52682,"date":"2020-08-24T13:15:37","date_gmt":"2020-08-24T11:15:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/lohmann-breeders.com\/genetic-and-environmental-effects-on-eggshell-stability\/"},"modified":"2020-08-24T13:15:37","modified_gmt":"2020-08-24T11:15:37","slug":"genetic-and-environmental-effects-on-eggshell-stability","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/lohmann-breeders.com\/zh-hans\/genetic-and-environmental-effects-on-eggshell-stability\/","title":{"rendered":"GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON EGGSHELL STABILITY"},"content":{"rendered":"
Fig. 1. Extended production cycle with\/without forced moulting (North Carolina Test Station \u2013 USA)<\/em> <\/blockquote>\r\n\r\n

\r\n\r\n\"\"

\r\n\r\nModern commercial layers and\r\nbreeders have the potential\r\nto produce a large numbers\r\nof eggs. Commercial layers producing\r\nnoticeably above 330 eggs in a single\r\nlaying cycle of 12 months is no exception\r\nunder various field conditions. Meat type\r\nbreeders have also become more prolific\r\nduring the last decades, easily producing\r\nup to 180 hatching eggs in 40 weeks of\r\nproduction. Most performance tables for\r\ncommercial layers give standards above\r\n80 weeks of age, but today many commercial layer flocks are kept up to 100\r\nweeks or more. In the near future laying\r\nflocks will be kept for longer production\r\ncycles, which requires more attention of\r\nall parties involved to maintain an acceptable eggshell quality towards the end of\r\nlay. The greatest challenge that most table\r\negg producers and breeder farmers are\r\nfacing is to maintain optimal eggshell stability. At the end of production eggshell\r\nquality often deteriorates considerably,\r\nleading to substantial economic losses\r\nfor farmers and hatcheries. Under field\r\nconditions some commercial layer farms\r\nmanage to keep the rejected eggs below\r\n5%, whereas others have more than 10%\r\nbroken and (hair-) cracked eggs (Fig. 2)<\/strong>.\r\nThis wide variation indicates that several\r\nfactors are involved in maintenance of\r\ngood eggshell quality.

\r\n

Factors affecting eggshell stability<\/h2>
\r\nA wide range of different influences affect the shell formation in the hen and\r\nconsequently the possibility that the egg\r\nsuffers any damage after it has been laid.\r\nThe choice of the right strain (genetics)\r\nis a decisive factor. Numerous tests by\r\nstations worldwide and comparisons by\r\nmajor egg grading and packing companies show significant differences in\r\nrejected eggs between different layer\r\nbreeds. It is well known that with increasing age of a hen shell quality usually\r\ndeteriorates, however, not all layer strains\r\nshow the same decline in shell strength.\r\nManagement procedures applied by the\r\nfarmer, like lighting and feeding programs, paying attention to egg collection

\r\n\r\nFig. 2. Variation of shell breaking strength and percentage of cracks between individual farms in the Netherlands<\/em>

\r\n\r\n\"\"

\r\n\r\n\r\nand handling with care afterwards have a\r\nmajor impact on actual egg harvest per\r\nfarm. Prevention of heat stress under hot\r\nweather conditions is crucial to safeguard\r\nproduction and egg quality. Correct climate control supported by feed supplementation will greatly contribute to improved shell quality. The health status of\r\na flock needs to be safeguarded by a well\r\ndesigned vaccination program and comprehensive biosecurity. Many common\r\ndiseases like infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease and mycoplasma infection\r\nmay cause substantial production losses\r\nand severely affect shell stability. The right\r\nequipment is also important to prevent\r\neggs from breaking after being laid. Cage\r\n(floor) properties, egg conveyor belt alignments, nests with good bedding and a\r\nstate-of-the-art grading and packing machine are important technological issues.\r\nFinally, a well balanced feeding program\r\nwith all nutrients reflecting the birds requirements during different phases of life\r\nis essential to allow the bird to lay \u2018well\r\npacked\u2019 eggs according to their potential.\r\nIn this article only two major factors affecting shell strength will be addressed. First\r\nof all the contribution of genetics to improve shell quality and secondly how the\r\nnutritionist can support the production of\r\nstronger shells.

\r\n

Genetics <\/h2>\r\nLeading layer-type breeding companies\r\nhave been selecting for decades for improved productivity and efficiency. Of\r\ncourse egg quality traits have not been\r\nneglected. Nowadays, a large number of\r\ntraits are collected on pure line level in the\r\npedigree farms. All those traits need to be\r\nincluded in a so-called index in order to be\r\nable to make a balanced selection of the\r\ncandidates for the next generation. Several\r\nmethods for measurement of eggshell stability are applied, however, only two have\r\nproven to be most effective. The use of devices measuring static breaking strength\r\nand crack detector for dynamic stiffness\r\nhave greatly contributed to improved shell\r\nstability. Both traits have favourable correlations with most other performance traits\r\nand have a moderate heritability which\r\nallow the genetic improvement of shell\r\nstability.

\r\n\r\nTable 1. Recommended particle size distribution of limestone for laying hens\r\n(LOHMANN TIERZUCHT Management Guide).<\/em>

\r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n\r\n
\"\"<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n

Nutrition<\/h2>
\r\nComparison of eggshell quality properties\r\nin the Netherlands revealed a wide variation between different feed manufacturers.\r\nDespite the fact that all breeding companies publish feed recommendations for\r\ntheir strains, each feed company usually\r\ndesigns their own in-house feed recipes.\r\nIn order to compose a feed which allows\r\nthe birds to produce strong shelled eggs,\r\nseveral issues need to be considered.

\r\nHot weather conditions<\/strong>

\r\nIn hot climates where heat stress has a\r\nmajor impact on productivity and shell\r\nstability, additional actions are required to\r\nsupport the laying hens. Due to the combination of reduced intake of nutrients\r\nand respiratory alkalosis due to panting,\r\nshell formation is at risk. Addition of 2-3 kg\r\nsodium bicarbonate per ton of feed has\r\nproven to balance the alkalosis and contribute to stronger shells. Micro-ingredients\r\nlike zinc, copper, chromium and manganese which play an essential role at the\r\nshell formation should be increased under\r\nheat stress. Finally supplementation of\r\nvitamin C and E helps the birds to cope\r\nwith high temperatures.

\r\nCalcium supply<\/strong>

\r\nMost companies use limestone or (oyster-)\r\nshells as the main source for calcium carbonate. Besides issues like ratio of calcium\r\nrelease (solubility), first and foremost is\r\nthe correct particle size distribution of the\r\ncalcium source. In particular, the fraction\r\nof coarse particles should be sufficient. A\r\nfeed with too high percentage of fine and\r\nmedium sized particles will cause more\r\nbroken eggs compared to feed with coarse particles.

\r\nPhase feeding program<\/strong>

\r\nThroughout the production period egg\r\nweight normally increases and production gradually decreases after peak performance has been reached around 25\r\nweeks of age. In order to fulfil the nutrient\r\nrequirement in the different stages of life\r\na tailor-made phase feeding program has\r\nbeen designed. The basis of such a program is an increase in calcium content\r\nwith time, as both utilisation\/absorption\r\ndecreases with age and egg size increases.\r\nThe available phosphorus level gradually\r\ndecreases towards the end of lay. Protein-\r\n(digestible amino acids) levels also decrease as birds tend to eat more when they\r\ngrow older. Methionine levels which have\r\na direct impact on egg weight also decrease in line with protein in order to prevent\r\noversized eggs which are more likely to\r\ncrack. A phase feeding program needs to\r\nbe applied early enough during the laying\r\nperiod in order to prevent oversized eggs.\r\nLayer birds adjust daily feed intake mainly\r\nin relation to their energy demand, furthermore increase in daily feed intake needs\r\nto be prevented. Overconsumption may\r\nlead to oversized eggs. Usually a constant\r\nlevel of energy of the feed throughout the\r\nphase feeding program is used under field\r\nconditions. The active form of vitamin D3\r\n(1,25-Hydroxycholecalciferol) is essential\r\nfor correct eggshell formation in the oviduct.\r\nVitamin D3 is converted in two steps in the\r\nliver and kidneys to its active form. Birds\r\nthat suffer from so-called fatty liver syndrome or have kidney damage benefit from\r\nsupplementation of the active form of vitamin D3 in the feed. Taking care of liver\r\nhealth will therefore contribute to a good\r\neggshell quality even in aging flocks.

\r\n

Summary<\/h2>
\r\nLayers and breeders have a genetic potential for a high egg output. In order to produce mainly saleable and settable (hatching)\r\neggs, eggshell stability is a crucial trait. Both\r\ngenetics and balanced nutrition play an\r\nimportant role to maintain good eggshell\r\nquality. Geneticists have succeeded to\r\ncombine a prolonged production period\r\nwith good eggshell stability until the end\r\nof lay. Specially designed devices for measurement of shell are used to accurately\r\ndistinguish hens laying strong shelled and\r\nweaker eggs. For the nutritionist hot climate\r\nconditions are an additional challenge. In\r\norder to maintain production of premium\r\nclass eggs, rations need to be supplemented with extra micro-ingredients, vitamins\r\nC and E and sodium bicarbonate. A socalled phase feeding program with different rations during the production period\r\nis essential to safeguard performance. The\r\nmain targets are to maintain a good eggshell quality, control egg size and balance\r\nnutrient supply to actual requirement.\r\nCoarse limestone particles are essential for\r\na continuous calcium supply during the\r\nshell formation. Vitamin D3, converted by\r\nthe liver and kidneys is required for eggshell\r\nformation in the shell gland.

\r\nRon Eek<\/strong>\r\n\r\n

\r\n\r\n\"\"
\r\nDevice for the measurement of dynamic stiffness.<\/em> \r\n\r\n
\"\"<\/div>\r\n\r\nFig. 3. Selection Index for layer-type birds with individual traits<\/em>

\r\n\r\n\"\"

\r\nFig. 4. Example of a four phase feeding program for layers<\/em>

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